Do we have any Hindu or Islamic Architecture, or it is Indian Architecture?

 In   Introduction: -
Medieval India is a period which witnessed many political, cultural and economic currents and shifts resulting in collaboration of two cultures, which were not completely alien to each other. One impact that this collaboration left can be seen on in the form of Indian architecture. Here in the essay, we will look at Indo-Islamic architecture in the context of Delhi Sultanate and Vijayanagar Empire which were contemporary to each other but situated at different locations geographically, Delhi sultunate in Northern India and Vijaynagar empire in Southern India. There are some architectural influences of Hindu or Indic characteristics on the Sultanate architecture in the form of motifs and architectural features like use of lintel and beam etc. where as we can observe Islamic influences on Vijayanagar’s architecture as well. 
         

        Background: -
The Sultanate of Delhi was established by Qutub din aibak in 1206 when Muhammad Ghori defeated Rajput ruler Prithviraj Chauhan and left aibak as his representative in Delhi who established Delhi sultunate which ended in 1526 after the defeat of last Lodhi ruler and Delhi’s emperor Ibrahim Lodi by Babur in first battle of Panipat, which marked the beginning of Mughal Empire. The Vijayanagar Empire was founded by two brothers known as Harihara and Bukka who in 1336 on the southern bank of Tungabhadra river. The Vijayanagar empire is known for its secular policies which is also reflected in their architecture.

        Architecture of Delhi Sultanate and Indo-Islamic influences: - 
Rulers of Delhi Sultanate required houses to live and places for workshop. So, initially the rulers get the mosques constructed by the remains of demolished temples but for Indian architect’s mosque was a new architecture so, lack of skilled architects and masons for mosque construction was an issue for the Islamic rulers. The first mosque which was built after Ghurid invasion in North India was Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi and Adhai Din Ka Jhopra in Ajmer which were constructed during Qutub din Aibak’s period and the latter was beautified by Iltutmish in 1213 A.D. both of these mosques have a characteristic arcaded screen and widespread use of spolia can also be noted. 

       

(Source- Wikipedia, Arcaded screen at Quwwat ul Islam Mosque)

(Source- Wikipedia, notice the spolia at Quwwat ul Islam mosque)

(Source- Amar Ujala, Facade at Adhai din ka Jhopra, Ajmer)

(Source- Wikipedia, Pillar at Adhai din ka Jhopra, Ajmer)

Quwwat ul Islam Mosque was constructed from remnants of Hindu and Jain temples which is visible from the halls constructed around the courtyard. The pillars of the halls carry floral motifs and remains of divine and human sculptures on them which is a prohibited practice in Islam and the use of lintel and beam technique which is a characteristic feature of Indian temples. Similarly, in the Adhai din ka Jhopra we can see presence of human figures on pillars; floral and swastika like patterns on its windows and niche. The tradition of constructing imperially sponsored mosques repeated as Delhi sultanate expanded into Deccan. The constructions commissioned by Iltutmish and Alauddin Khilji are notable for their use of dressed stone. Iltutmish in 1231 constructed a Tomb at Delhi called as Sultan Garhi tomb today for his eldest son which shows a unique kind of architecture, there was a huge gateway in the west on a high foundation. A pillar under the ground for entombed person. The underground room is situated at the middle, surrounded by a courtyard whose roof is pyramidical in shape contrasting with granite roofs. There was a circular dome in the middle under which there was an arched Mihrab. Iltutmish’s tomb is a square building having geometrical designs for decoration along with Quranic verses inscribed on marble stones slabs on walls. One distinctive feature of it is the use of ‘squinches’ to support the dome making an octagonal shape. However, the dome is no more but we can observe the eight- cornered pattern in the room. 

       

(Source- Flickr, Sultan Garhi Tomb, Delhi)

(Source- The speaking arch, True Arch at Balban's tomb, Delhi)

The use of ‘true arch’ and absence of Hindu temple remains in making buildings is another feature of this period. Use of true arch can also be seen in the plain and simple tomb of Balban who was predecessor of Iltutmish. The Khilji Era which witnessed some remarkable architectural features for example Alai Darwaza, which was constructed by Alauddin Khilji in 1311 is an extension of Quwwat ul Islam Mosque. The Alai Darwaza had Iranian and Indian features like ‘arabesque’ and battlement motifs, geometric patterns, carved Lotus and bordered creepers from Iranian and Indian architecture respectively. Alai Darwaza is a square building having Lotus buds being made at the entrance gate and windows scenic combination of red sandstone and white marble and horseshoe arch used for the first time is pleasing in appearance. The Khilji era monuments used dressed stones for mosques and another distinctive feature of Alai Darwaza is hyperbole, praising its patron emperor Sultan Alauddin Khilji. 

       

(Source- Wikipedia, Alai Darwaza, Delhi)

(Source- Pintrest, Lotus buds like projections at Alai Darwaza's gates)

Another Khilji Era monument is the Jamat Khan Mosque at Nizamuddin Aulia Dargah which is similar to Alai Darwaza in features, although not as graceful as Alai Darwaza, it has three gates each connected with a room and having a dome. The Tughlaq era architecture is known for its durability and proliferation and thus is adopted for bazaars of the Deccan as well, like the pyramidical Dome. Tughlaq era structures used rubble masonry coated with white washed plaster although Tughlaq era architecture was plain in appearance as compared to Khilji's but it had some distinct features of its own like the ‘Batter’ walls or sloping walls which looks sloped from outside, can be seen at Jami Mosque at Firoz Shah Kotla’s complex and Giyath al-Din Tughlaq’s tomb, this batter technique was used to give strength to walls. Khan-e-Jahan Telangani who was the prime minister of Firoz Shah Tughlaq had constructed 7 mosques in and around Delhi which had a common characteristic in them, that their gateways had minarets with semi-circular tops along them which gave a glimpse of a fortress at first and not traditional to mosques, for example- Khirki and Kalan Mosque and Begumpuri mosque etc.

       

(Source- Wikimedia commons, Mosque at Firoz Shah Kotla complex, Delhi)

Firoz shah’s tomb is not much graceful as Giyath al-Din’s tomb but we can see reflections of Indian elements there also, like it has lintel and beam at its entrance but batter walls are absent it also has a ‘madrasa’ attached to it which is usually found with mosques. Giyath al-Din’s tomb have a red and white colour combination like Alai Darwaza suggesting the royal association of red sandstone and white marble with sultunate era. The use of bracket and eave technique can be seen at Asharfi Mahal at Mahmud Khilji's Tomb in Mandu. Painted and carved wooden architectures were also made, for example Hazar Ustun Hall of Mohammed Bin Tughlaq similar to Central Asian Talars. Emergence of carved and moulded stucco, blue glazed ceramics can be seen at Tughlaqabad and Jahapanah etc. In the form of ‘Blue glazed Lotus’ etc. During initial years of Firoz’s era lime and rubble was used. Under the reign of Syed and Lodhi Dynasty Delhi’s Empire was on decline and nothing much was done. Although there were some new features coming in, like the small single aisled mosques composed of 3 or 5 bays, for example- Bara Gumbad Mosque at Lodhi Garden and Jamali Mosque at Mehrauli etc. These mosques had features which were not seen in Delhi sultanate’s earlier rule exclusively like inlaid coloured stones at Jamali Mosque and calligraphy, high Central portal (pishtaq) at Sikandar Lodi’s Jama Mosque. Mubarak Khan and Mohammad Shah’s tombs had octagon structure and ‘Chhatris’ which is an Indic feature. Bara Gumbad mosque had bracket and lintel beam architecture, vaulted gateways and stucco containing Quranic verses. Double dome also appeared in Lodhi period used at Sikandar Lodi’s tomb. Another feature of Lodhi era monuments is having domes with necks for example- Shish Gumbad at Lodhi Garden. Sultunate era monuments had high platforms also like in pyramidical shapes etc.

(Source- Wikipedia, Muhammad Shah tomb, Delhi, Use of chattris can be seen around the dome)

(Source- Researchgate.com, in the picture double dome technique can be seen)

(Source- Astrolika, Sikander Lodi's tomb)

(Source- Wikipedia, Inlay stone work at Jamali Mosque, Mehrauli)

(Source- Facebook, Asharfi Mahal, Mandu, also has reflections of Indian architecture)

(Source- Wikipedia, Firoz Shah's Tomb, Delhi)

(Source- Wikimedia commons, Use of beam and lintel technique at Firoz Shah's tomb which is an element of temple architecture)

(Source- Wikipedia, Giyath al din's tomb, Delhi)

(Source- https://www.alamy.com/tomb-of-iltutmish-in-qutub-tomb-complex-in-new-delhi-india-image363111321.html, Inside view of Illtutmish's tomb)

(Source- Wikimedia commons, Outside view of Illtutmish's tomb)

        Vijayanagar’s architecture and Islamic reflections
Vijayanagar is considered to be a secular state adopting secular policies and architectural features. Vijayanagar empire used to build extensive temple complexes along with temple having simple plans usually a small central shrine and a pillared hall. Devi shrines had elaborate complexes with decorated pillars having sculptures and puranic stories a common practice of temple architecture which is similar to inscribing Quranic verses on roof, walls and gates, of Islamic architecture. Vijaynagar's temple complexes had huge gateways known as Gopura and Prakaras which is outer area around the sanctum, generally enclosed with walls. An additional feature of temple architecture of the empire is called as ‘Upapitha’ (plinth) which is defined as a sub base of the temple increase temple’s height and towards the beginning of 16th century decorated plinths started being added to temples. Another striking feature was to attach additional pillars to main pillar which were ornated with sculptures like horse riding war (yali) for example- Vitthala Temple. 

       

(Source- Karnataka.com, Upapitha at Vittala Temple, Hampi)

(Source- Wikipedia, Yali- a mythical creature at Vittala temple)

     Separate shrines and spaces were being built for festivals and devotees like in Vaishnava temples separate shrines were made for ‘Garuda’ and ‘alvars’ whereas ‘Uyyalu mandapa’ for placing deities on swing during special occasions was a new addition. Gopura became dominant feature of the empire and temple walls were provided with pilasters and niches, decorated with floral motifs, which was the architectural feature of Delhi Sultanate as well. Sculptures were carved on various themes like dancers and musicians from Central Asia, European merchants and life size images of royal, chiefly families and donors found at Sringeri, Bhatkal etc. In 16th century temple was built in Vaikom, Kerala with square plan having an elliptical columned mandapa. Islamic influences can be seen at Vijaynagar architecture in Hampi and Chandragiri; Hampi have an elephant festival which has domes with Shikhara type roofs, Lotus Mahal which have pyramidal roof of temple architecture and sunken foliated arches similar to Lodhi tombs.

(Source- Wikimedia commons, Elephant stable at Hampi)

 At Chandragiri there is a late 16th century storeyed palace called as Rani Mahal having arcaded facades with the series of Islamic arches. Domingo Peas mentions in his accounts about areas having Muslim population with Islamic buildings like mosque and tombs. The area known as Karidampura having two beautiful and magnificent structures which is a tomb and mosque, the tomb has a square plan but from inside it is octagonal, its dome had fallen, and it gives the reflection of Iltutmish’s tomb from inside although not much decorated but has decorative arches outside. The mosque situated nearby have a circular octagonal dome, arches on walls and ‘parapet’ like boundary around the dome which is also visible at Kadalekalu Ganesha temple complex structure as well. Vijayanagar architecture used geometric and foliate decoration, moulded bases, overhanging eaves and pyramid towers synthesizing Dravida and Islamic forms. The imperial architecture was generally built of a small crudely cut stone blocks set in thick mortar covered with plaster and use of brick and lime concrete which is similar to sultunate building materials. Some similarities can also be observed at Hazara Rama temple where we can find hanging Lotus buds like Alai Darwaza. Islamic influence can be observed at an audience Hall at Madurai where we can see cusp arches, a Gateway in fortification wall is made with an arch and dome, a storeyed watchtower having mixture of Indo-Islamic forms where arches were made with shikhara at the top; are some examples of imperial     architecture.

(Source- Karnataka.com, Lotus Mahal, Hampi)

(Source- Karidampura Tomb, Hampi, It's square plan is similar to Illtutmish's tomb)

                     So, with the help of architectural features we can draw similarities and distinctions between architecture of different empires.

        References: -
1.      Noborou Karashima, A concise history of South India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), pg.- 216-214
2.      Aniruddha Ray, THE SULTANATE OF DELHI (1206-1526) Polity, Economy, Society and Culture (Abingdon: Routledge, 2019, e-edition), chapter-12
3.      Satish Chandra, Medieval India From Sultunate to Mughals Delhi Sultunate (1206-1526), 6^th ed. (India: HAR-ANAND PUBLICATIONS LTD., 2017), chapter-13, part-1, pg.-232-236
4.      Finbarr Barry Flood, Before the Mughals: material culture of sultunate North India
5.      Catherine B. Asher, “Precedents of Mughal Architecture” in The new Cambridge history of India, (Cambridge University Press, 2008)
6.      Satish Chandra, “Cultural developments in India (1300-1500) part-i) Architecture in History of Medieval India, (Orient Blackswan Pvt. Ltd., 2018, e-edition) pg.-197-201